Before private firms can engage in barter trading, Russia will have to devise a complex regulatory framework likely covering the collection of taxes on imports, valuation of stamp duties and dispute processes, Kuntamukkala notes.¹⁾

Meanwhile, there could be issues over the valuation of goods or the allocation of risk, should there be any instances of non-delivery or non-payment.²⁾

“Sanctions enforcement against these barter networks is a lot harder, particularly when you consider Russia’s historic dominance in the region,” said Behnam Ben Taleblu, an expert on Iranian security at the Foundation for Defense of Democracies. “The short-term goal should be exposing these networks to the limelight.”³⁾